Classic Mortadella Is Made in Beef Bung or Bladder
Frankfurter Sausage
(2017) found that frankfurter sausages containing a mixture of neat fish oil and olive oil (1:1) were more oxidatively stable than those containing only encapsulated fish oil prepared with maltodextrin, gum Arabic, and caseinate.
From: Omega-3 Delivery Systems , 2021
Sausage processing and production
Steven M. Lonergan , ... Dennis N. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition), 2019
Examples of Smoked and Cooked Batter Sausages
Of the cooked and smoked batter sausages, frankfurters (Fig. 14.8; sometimes called franks, wieners, or hot dogs) are the most popular of all the sausage products produced in the United States. They represent more than 25% of all the sausage products sold in the United States. A typical frankfurter will have a composition of 60% beef and 40% pork. Wieners can also be made of 100% beef, 100% pork, 100% poultry meat, or a combination of these meat sources. The wieners can vary in size and style for different markets. The largest diameter is the frankfurter, and the smallest diameter is the Vienna-style wieners (Fig. 14.9). The Vienna-style wiener takes its name from the city of Vienna, Austria. Another style of Vienna sausages is marketed in a can, and it is stable at room temperature (Fig. 14.10). Large bologna is also a very popular sausage in the United States, and it accounts for about 20% of the sausage consumption. Its processing formulation is similar to franks, but the bologna casing is much larger in diameter than wieners.
Fig. 14.8. An example of frankfurters (wieners and hot dogs) as a cooked and smoked sausage.
Fig. 14.9. An example of Vienna-style wieners. Vienna-style wieners are typically smaller in diameter and longer than the traditional frankfurter. Two wieners on the bottom of the figure are the Vienna-style wieners.
Fig. 14.10. An example of Vienna-style wieners that are canned and often consumed on camping trips.
Some examples of well-known nonbatter smoked and cooked sausages are smoked pork sausage, polish sausage (Fig. 14.11), and smoked thuringer. These products are coarser in texture than frankfurters and do not require a bowl chopper or emulsion mill for their production. The product is ground for a particle size of 1/4 to 1/8 in.
Fig. 14.11. An example of a coarse-ground polish sausage.
Braunschweiger (Fig. 14.12) is an example of cooked sausage that is made from liver, pork trimmings, jowls, bacon ends, and onions. The livers are ground and then placed in a chopper with salt and cure ingredients. Then ground pork, jowls, bacon ends, and other seasonings such as white pepper, dextrose, nutmeg, ginger, allspice, cloves, and water are added to the liver mixture, and the formulation is chopped to approximately 65°F. The processed product is encased in fibrous casings and either cooked in water at 180°F or transferred to the thermal processing unit and steam cooked to 155°F internally. After cooking, Braunschweiger must be refrigerated and stored under refrigerated conditions to preserve flavor and prevent microbial growth.
Fig. 14.12. An example of Braunschweiger or liver sausage.
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Testing protein functionality
R.K. Owusu-Apenten , in Proteins in Food Processing, 2004
10.5.2 Meat emulsions
Meat emulsions include products like bologna, frankfurters, sausages, liver sausages, and meat loaf. They are produced from comminuted or finely homogenized meat, mechanically recovered meat, poultry or fish. Sausage can be manufactured on a small scale by homogenizing meat with ice (for temperature control) using a bowl-chopper. Fat is then added followed by further processing in the chopper. Spices are then added followed by rusk or other water binders or fillers. According to the emulsion theory for comminuted meat products – water, protein and fat produce the continuous, emulsifier, and dispersed phase of an oil-in-water emulsion, respectively. The large size of some oil droplets (0.1–50 μm) has led to doubts whether meat emulsions should be considered true emulsions. An alternative model for comminuted meat products is that they are 3–dimensional gel networks with entrapped oil. 120–124 Most reviewers refer to these products as meat emulsions and this practice is adopted here. 125–131
Standardized tests for protein functionality in meat emulsions have been developed. The emulsification capacity (EC) test of Swift et al. measures the volume of oil emulsified per 100 mg of protein at the point of emulsion inversion. 132,133 Related indices have been proposed including the emulsified volume (volume of oil emulsified per 15 ml of protein solution) or the emulsifying ability (EA), which is the volume of oil emulsified per 25 ml of protein extract. The oil phase volume at the point of inversion is a further index for EC. 134 Applications of Swift's test for a variety of plant proteins were reviewed by McWatters and Cherry. 135 The meat emulsion stability (ES) test of Townsend et al. 136 measures the volume of fluid released when an emulsion is cooked to an internal temperature of 68.8 °C. Standard conditions for assessing EC involves 25 ml initial oil volume, a soluble protein concentration of 11 mg/ml, a mixer speed of 13, 140 rpm and temperature of about <28 °C. 137 The emulsion breakpoint is more easily visualized by adding 0.3g Oil Red O dye per liter of oil. 138 Tests for EC and ES for comminuted meat products have become widely accepted though they have not undergone formal collaborative testing. A summary of variables affecting protein functionality in meat emulsions is shown in Table 10.9.
Table 10.9. Variables affecting meat emulsion characteristics
| Variable |
|---|
|
The order of increasing EC for isolated muscle proteins was myosin > actomyosin > actin for beef, 139 porcine 140 or chicken muscle. 141 Gillet et al. 142 showed, using eight different meat sources, that a plot of soluble protein concentration versus EC or EA produced a linear or inverse curvilinear plot, respectively, by virtue of the algebraic definition of each index. EC was directly proportional to the concentration of salt soluble protein extracted by stirring a 1:4 w/w meat slurry with 7.5% NaCl solution over six minutes. The relation between texture and salt soluble protein levels applies also to Chinese meat balls (Kung-wan). 143 Mechanically deboned poultry meat, 144 and the effect of chopping temperatures 145,146 on meat emulsions have been assessed using Swift's test.
Large deformation rheological measurements using the Instron universal tester is another routine test for protein functionality in meat emulsions. Substitution of meat protein by vegetable protein leads to a reduction in the texture of cooked emulsions. Gluten, SPI or egg white increased the yield of a cooked meat emulsion. At replacement levels of < 80% egg white and SPI had a positive effect on product texture. 147 Pretreatment with ficin, collagenase, and papain revealed that both salt soluble and connective tissue proteins affected emulsion texture. 148 Corn germ protein at 2% substitution reduced shear force and cooking losses. Adhesiveness and water holding capacity were increased. 149 Canola or SPI were evaluated at 33.3 and 66.7% substitution. Rapture force, first and second bite hardness, and springiness were reduced compared to whole meat emulsions. Adhesiveness and cook stability was improved. 150 The functionality of vegetable proteins within meat emulsions is further discussed by Mittal and Usborne. 151,152
Small deformation rheological measurements or thermo-rheological studies provide continuous measurement of the storage modulus (G′) and loss modulus (G″) during thermal treatment. 153–155 Heating meat emulsions produced a fall in G′ at T > 20 °C probably due to melting of meat fat. There was then a sudden rise in G′ at 60–70 °C ascribed to myosin denaturation. Adding SPI produced a two-phase transition in G′ at 60–70 °C and 70–100 °C. These changes in G′ coincided with protein denaturation temperature measured by DSC. Meat emulsions containing SPI or buttermilk powder had increased rigidity compared with control meat emulsions or those containing modified wheat flour or whey protein.
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Soy Protein Processing and Utilization
Edmund W. Lusas , Khee Choon Rhee , in Practical Handbook of Soybean Processing and Utilization, 1995
Meat Applications
Meat products are highly prized and attract cost-cutting technologies in all countries. In the United States, soy proteins are used:
- 1.
-
As processing aids in the manufacture of frankfurters, sausages, and comminuted meat products
- 2.
-
In marinades and tumbling solutions for restructured meats
- 3.
-
In injection pumping proteins to increase the weight of intact muscles and cuts
- 4.
-
In extruder-texturized flours and concentrates that are rehydrated and used at about the 20% level in hamburgers
Processed Meats
The U.S. Department of Agriculture permits use of up to 3.5% soy flours or concentrates in standard of identity frankfurters, up to 8% soy flour in scrapple and chili con carne, and up to 2% soy protein isolates in standard of identity frankfurters. Soy flours and concentrates can bind up to three times their weight in water, whereas nonfat dry milk solids bind only an equal weight of water. These ingredients reduce shrinkage due to moisture and fat loss during cooking. The use of soy protein isolates globally, in making skin and fat emulsions for later inclusion in processed meats and other applications, is described in detail by Bonkowski (90). Broad latitudes in formulation for processed meats exist outside of the United States, and also within the United States for non–standard of identity meat products.
Restructured Meats.
Principles of restructuring meats are reviewed by Pearson and Dutson (91). Basically, red or poultry meats are flaked or chunked into small pieces, mixed or tumbled with salt and polyphosphates to extract heat-coagulable protein, shaped into loaf pans or other still-forming devices, heat-set at about 68°C (154°F), and cut into desirable shapes and thicknesses. Soy flours, concentrates, and isolates are used at approximately the same levels as in processed meats to improve textural stability and minimize shrinkage.
Pumped Meats.
Brines consisting of water, salt, polyphosphates, and soy protein isolates or functional concentrates are prepared and pumped into muscle cuts using stitch pumps. Various domestic federal regulations apply; for example, hams and corned beef can be pumped to achieve cooked yields of 130%, provided a minimum protein content of 17% is maintained. Reviews on meat pumping technology have been prepared by Bonkowski (90) and Rakes (92).
Extruder-Texturized Soy Proteins.
Texturized soy flours or concentrates may be rehydrated to 18% protein content (60 to 65% moisture content) and used at levels up to 30% reconstituted soy protein in ground meat blends and hamburgers. However, in domestic practice the reconstituted portion usually has been used at about 20%, because of texture and flavor problems accompanying higher levels of meat substitution. Special vitamin- and mineral-fortified texturized soy protein products are required for school lunch and military feeding. Texturized soy proteins are sometimes included in standard of identity canned meat products above the meat requirement to improve product attractiveness.
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Casings and packaging material
Gerhard Feiner , in Meat Products Handbook, 2006
35.1 Natural casings
A large number of meat products such as cooked sausages (frankfurters), liver sausages, salami and ham products are always filled into casings. Other meat products such as brawns, meat jellies and blood sausages are commonly filled into casings as well. Casings keep the meat product in shape, act as a barrier against external influences such as UV light and moisture and are also a factor in the marketing and sale of the product. An attractive casing showing a company's logo, for example, could promote sales.
The casing of a meat product makes up around 1% of the finished item and its primary function, as mentioned above, is to give the product a certain shape and to ensure that this shape is maintained. Natural casings from pigs, sheep, horses and cattle have been used in the production of meat products for thousands of years. They are highly permeable to smoke and moisture and therefore the risk of water or fat separation in products filled into natural casings is reduced. Natural casings cohere very well to the meat mass filled into the casing and therefore they do not separate from the meat mass, as might occur, for example, during drying of a salami. Natural casings also shrink well and contribute to the 'snap' of cooked sausages such as frankfurters. The fact that these casings are a '100% natural product' can also be used for marketing purposes, and the natural casings give a meat product a distinctly old-world appearance. Brawn filled into pork stomach, for example, would be recognized by the consumer as a very traditional product.
Natural casings are often made from the small intestines, which are made up of several layers. The innermost layer of the gut wall is called the mucosa and contains glands which play a role in secretion and absorption in the gut and the digestion of food. The next layer (counting from the inside of the gut to the outside) is the submucosa, which is predominately made up of connective tissue (collagen), and this layer strengthens the gut wall. The submucosa is followed by a layer of circular muscle tissue and then a layer of longitudinal muscle tissue. The outermost outer layer is the serosa, which is mainly made up of collagen and elastin, but fat is also present on the outside of this layer. Figure 35.1 shows a cross-section of an intestine.
Fig. 35.1. Cross-section of an intestine.
Beef casings used in the production of meat products originate mostly from the oesophagus or weasand, small and large intestines, caecum (bungs) and bladder. Weasands from cattle are usually used for large-diameter sausages and the length of a weasand is around 50–60 cm. Casings from the small intestines of cattle are commonly known as rounds or runners whereas casings originating from the large intestines of cattle are known as middles. The total length of all small and large intestines together is around 20 times the length of the body of a cow. The small intestines of cattle, from which come rounds or runners, are around 35 m in length and have a diameter of 4–6 cm. Before use, beef rounds are commonly flushed with water, inversed (turned inside out) and the mucosa and the fat connected to the serosa are removed. Casings from the small intestines of beef, therefore, contain the submucosa and both layers of muscle tissue and the serosa are therefore much thicker than pork runners which consist only of the submucosa, as all other layers are removed. Beef runners are sold in hanks, with one hank being 100 yards or 91.4 m in length. Beef bungs are made from the blind gut or caecum of cattle, which connects to the small and large intestines. Bungs are around 70 cm long and 10–15 cm wide. Beef bungs are treated more or less in the same way as middles (see below). Beef bladders, on the other hand, are washed, inversed and inflated with air or salted before use.
Before use, beef middles are separated from the ruffle (fat associated with the intestines) and then flushed with water. Any fat is trimmed off and they are then inversed, slimmed (i.e. the layer of mucosa is removed) and salted. Certain sections of beef middles are known as the 'straight casings'. These include the narrow end, wide end and fat end of the middles, with the fat end being the part most commonly used.
Pig casings have a total length of around 25 m and parts such as the stomach, the small intestines (also known as the runners, rounds or hog casings), the large intestines such as the cap (caecum) and middles, the terminal end of large intestines (bung) and the bladder are used in the production of meat products. When pig stomach is not being used for filling sausages, it is scalded, well cleaned and subsequently usually processed further for soups or introduced into traditional Italian mortadella once it has been cooked. When it is utilized as a casing for meat products, it is washed and salted. Pig rounds, from the small intestines, are around 18 m in length. To make rounds, the small intestines are separated from the ruffle and all intestinal contents are removed either by hand or by machine. The emptied intestines are then treated with a mucous remover and are de-slimed (the layer of mucosa is removed). If the intestinal contents are removed by machine, machines with a set of strippers or rollers remove the mucosa, both layers of muscle tissue and the serosa from the casing. Finally, only the submucosa from the small intestines remains as the material to be used as casing for sausages. This is then salted. The removal of the mucosa used to be carried out in the past by hand and, to remove the mucosa as well as the two layers of muscle tissue, the casing used to be soaked in water at around 25 °C overnight with the casing being inverted prior to soaking. Both layers would become very soft and tender and could be removed afterwards by hand easily. Pig rounds, or runners, exhibit a diameter from 28 to 42 mm and are sometimes even larger, depending on the age and breed of the animal.
The processed pork caecum is known as the cap, and the middle section of the large intestines is known as the middles. The first and large section of the large intestines of pigs is normally not used in the production of sausages. To be used as casings, pork middles are separated from fat, flushed well with water and inverted. Mucosa and serosa are removed, leaving both layers of muscle tissue and the submucosa. The middles are then finally salted. Pig bungs, the terminal end of the large intestine, are around 1 m in length. They are thoroughly flushed, slimmed (i.e. their mucosa removed), inflated for grading and salted. Pig bladders to be used as casings are emptied and excess fat is removed. They are then inverted before they are salted or inflated by air and dried.
Both hog and sheep casings are sold either as 'selected' or 'unselected' casings. These terms refer to the diameter of the casings in a hank (a bundle of casings) and selected casings all have a diameter within a narrow and specified range. In a selected hank of casings, around 90–94% must be within the diameter specified. They are significantly more expensive than unselected casings. The diameter of unselected casings varies hugely and typically only around 60–70% of all casing material within a hank is within the mentioned diameter. To grade a casing according to its diameter, the casing is inflated with air or water and then the diameter can be determined.
Casings from sheep are divided into rounds, caps and straight casings. Commonly only sheep rounds (originating from the small intestines) are used for the production of sausages such as frankfurters, but sheep caps are occasionally utilized for salami (inverted and with the mucosa removed). The sheep small intestines or rounds are separated from the ruffle and the contents of the intestines are removed. The mucosa, both layers of muscular tissue and the serosa, are then removed from the emptied casing, as only the submucosa is utilized as a casing. The material is finally salted. Sheep casings are also sold in hanks, with one hank being 100 yards or 91.4 m long. The diameter of sheep casings varies commonly between 16 and 28 mm. Cooked sausages such as frankfurters and Vienna sausage are often filled into this type of casing. Fresh sausages are also occasionally filled into natural sheep (and hog) casings.
During salting, natural casings are heavily exposed to salt. Typically 40–50% salt is added to the cleaned and prepared casing. Stored in containers at around 4 °C, salted casings have an essentially limitless shelf life as a result of the cold storage temperature and especially because of the extremely high concentration of salt, which reduces the A w value and inhibits growth of bacteria. Prior to use for the manufacture of sausage, the casings are washed well in order to remove all salt. The thoroughly washed casings are placed in hand-warm water in order to increase the elasticity of the casing for easy filling and linking. Natural casings today are also available preflushed in salt brines containing around 15% salt and are already pretubed (shirred) for better efficiency during the filling process. The time taken to fit the casing on to the filling pipe (stuffing horn) is shortened considerably if shirred natural casings are used. Table 35.1 shows recommended levels of bacteria per gram on natural casings. These guidelines vary from country to country.
Table 35.1. Recommended levels of bacteria per gram on natural casings (levels vary from country to country)
| Bacterial level per gram | ||
|---|---|---|
| Optimum | Maximum | |
| Aerobic bacteria | < 1.0 × 105 | 4.0 × 106 |
| Staphylococcus aureus | < 1.0 × 102 | 1.0 × 103 |
| Enterobacteriaceae | < 1.0 × 105 | 7.0 × 103 |
| Sulphite-reducing spores of Clostridium spp. | < 1.0 × 102 | 7.0 × 102 |
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Functional and physicochemical properties of pulse proteins
Vassilis Kiosseoglou , ... Mahesha M. Poojary , in Pulse Foods (Second Edition), 2021
6.5.3 Meat products
Pulse proteins, when blended with meat proteins, may offer a promising alternative source for nutritional and functional proteins (Boye et al., 2010a). Their incorporation in products such as sausages, frankfurters, burgers, etc., apart from improving their nutritional quality, aims at a more acceptable texture and a better color and cooking performance. Chickpea and faba bean flours, concentrates, and PMM concentrates, prepared by applying a salting-out process, were used as sausage meat extenders at substitution levels ranging from 20% to 40% (Abdel-Aal et al., 1987). Protein-rich materials from lupin have also been used as extenders or as meat substitutes in comminuted meat products. Alamanou et al. (1996) conducted studies on the use of LPI from seeds of Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus in frankfurters at various levels. Incorporation of LPI increased (P < .05) the pH and viscosity of batter and reduced jelly separation. LPI addition at levels of up to 2% had no adverse effect on functional properties or consumer acceptance of the product. Moreover, the frankfurters exhibited a satisfactory processing yield and better WHC compared to the control. Previous LPI treatment (hydration or use as a stabilizer in preemulsified fat at 1% level) had a beneficial effect on the processing and sensory characteristics of frankfurters, probably due to better hydration of batter during these treatments.
In another study (Papavergou et al., 1999), fermented sausages were extended using LFs and LPIs from a sweet variety of Lupinus albus and a bitter variety of Lupinus albus ssp. Graecus, at a 2% supplementation level. These workers found that LF addition from both varieties had detrimental effects on the odor and taste of the meat products, probably due to its high prooxidant character. Products containing LP isolates exhibited no difference in firmness, appearance, and color compared to the control, whereas their eating quality was affected by the type of isolate used, with that derived from the sweet variety being more susceptible to oxidation. The antioxidant effect exhibited by LPI, extracted from the bitter variety, was attributed to the occurrence of minor constituents, such as flavonoids, phenols, and peptides, which do not promote the rancidity of the product.
Lupin proteins incorporated in comminuted meat products perform at the same time as fat emulsifiers, water binders, and gelation agents, leading to the development of acceptable textural and sensory attributes. The way the proteins of LPIs, enriched in either albumins or globulins, interact in the meat gel network systems and affect the eating quality of products, where structure formation takes place upon cooking, was studied by Mavrakis et al. (2003). These researchers observed that LPI incorporation in a model comminuted meat system affected the compressive behavior of the gels, with the stress increasing more rapidly with strain for the gels containing lupin proteins. When 25% fat was incorporated into the system, to simulate the composition of a typical sausage product, the gel structure became weaker but again compressive stress reached higher values in the presence of lupin protein. This enhancement indicated that lupin proteins were involved in the development of the multicomponent comminuted gel structure during processing, probably through lupin protein participation in interactions, either at the fat particle surface or within isolated pockets of high lupin protein content (Mavrakis et al., 2003). According to Drakos et al. (2007), the increase of the gel network resistance to compression upon incorporation of LPI in comminuted meat paste and heating at 90°C depended on composition with respect to fat, water, and salt. Although the lupin proteins tended to adsorb to the fat particle surfaces of the comminuted meat system, it was found that these surfaces were dominated by the salt-soluble proteins of meat.
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Proteins, Peptides, and Amino Acids
Samuel Adegoke Chetachukwu , ... Seyed Vali Hosseini , in Nutraceutical and Functional Food Components (Second Edition), 2022
2.2.1.3 Emulsifying effect
Emulsions are dispersed systems of one or more immiscible liquids. Several natural and processed foods, such as milk, egg yolk, coconut milk, soy milk, butter, margarine, mayonnaise, spreads, salad dressings, frozen desserts, frankfurter, sausage, and cakes, are emulsion-type products where proteins play an essential role as an emulsifier. In natural milk, the fat globules are stabilized by a membrane composed of lipoproteins. When milk is homogenized, the lipoprotein membrane is replaced by a protein film composed of casein micelles and whey proteins. Homogenized milk is more stable against creaming than natural milk because the casein micelle-whey protein film is stronger than the natural lipoprotein membrane.
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MEAT AND POULTRY | Curing of Meat
P.J. Taormina , in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014
Naturally Cured Products
Consumer demand for 'better for you' and 'natural' foods has led to the resurgence of the natural curing process. The marketplace now offers 'uncured,' natural and organic versions of cured delicatessen (deli) meats, hams, cooked sausages, frankfurters, and bacon. These products have no added nitrite, but flavorings or spices such as celery juice or powder act as natural sources of nitrate. The naturally occurring nitrate is converted into nitrite by the use of starter cultures composed of nitrate reductase-positive and coagulase-negative cocci, such as Kocuria varians, Staphylococcus xylosus, and Staphylococcus carnosus. The process includes an incubation period of about 1 h at 42 °C to enable nitrate reduction before typical cook cycles. Commercial producers have adopted a faster process utilizing preconverted nitrite, which eliminates the need for a starter culture and incubation step. Because direct addition is used, naturally cured meats can have variable finished levels of nitrite. Consequently, naturally cured products can permit more growth of C. perfringens than their conventionally cured counterparts.
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BIOPRESERVATION
C.K. Yost , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014
Cooked Meats
Listeria monocytogenes can be introduced into cooked meat products after cooking and during peeling, slicing, and packaging of the product. The addition of a pediocin-producing strain of P. acidilactici at numbers of 107 colony-forming units (CFU) per gram inhibited the growth of Li. monocytogenes on vacuum-packed wiener and frankfurter sausages stored at 4 °C for 60 days. In the nonbiopreserved controls, Li. monocytogenes grew by up to 106 CFU g–1 during that time. However, this inhibition was not necessarily due to the production of a bacteriocin, as similar inhibition occurred when the products were inoculated with a bacteriocin-negative strain of P. acidilactici. The addition of lower numbers of the bioprotective culture (103–104 CFU g–1) delayed but did not completely inhibit the growth of Li. monocytogenes.
Another organism suitable for inhibiting Li. monocytogenes in cooked, sliced meat is Leuconostoc carnosum 4010, cultures of which are commercially available. The effects of this organism, which produces the bateriocin leucocin, in a broad range of meat products have been documented. Cultures of the organism were applied to meat products as they were sliced, by nozzles placed next to the blade of the slicing equipment. The addition to slices of 107 Le. carnosum 4010 per gram of product completely inhibited the growth of Li. monocytogenes during storage at both 5 and 10 °C (Figure 1). This kind of antilisterial effect can be obtained with various bacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria. If meat is inoculated with high numbers of Li. monocytogenes, the addition of a protective culture will often cause a decrease in the number of Li. monoctyogenes due to the activity of the bacteriocin.
Figure 1. Inhibition of Li. monocytogenes in sliced ham biopreserved with Le. carnosum 4010. The product is sliced on a small-scale industrial slicer and the protective culture is added through two nozzles placed close to the knife. The product is packed in 20% CO2/80% N2 and stored at 5 °C and 10 °C. n = 2 for all controls only inoculated with Li. monocytogenes. For biopreserved series, n = 2 at days 1, 7, and 14 and n = 10 at days 21 and 28.
The use of nonbacteriocin-producing lactic acid bacteria has also shown promising effects for inhibition of Li. monocytogenes in sliced meat products and frankfurters. Organisms that give such effects include several strains of the species Lactobacillus sakei. These strains have been evaluated for antilisterial effect as well as sensory effects. The results showed that these strains are suitable for use as protective cultures in cooked, sliced meat products.
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Improvement of the Functional and Healthy Properties of Meat Products
María J. Beriain , ... Ana I. Ordóñez , in Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease, 2018
3.3.4 Reduction or replacement fat by vegetable oils
Meat products, such as emulsified or coarsely ground sausages may contain up to 37% fat (e.g., dry, cured pork salami). The consistency is an important property at the moment of reducing the content of SFA and to replace them with unsaturated fats. All those more unsaturated FAs it contains a product, softer the fat turns, which supposes a problem for the manufacturers since it needs the adjustment or substitution of the technologies of processing. Likewise, on having increased the unsaturated fat content also it increases the trend to oxidize of the fat and to becoming mellow. However, reduction of fat in finely ground meat products, such as emulsified, boiled sausages (frankfurter style) is extremely challenging and poses difficulties in terms of appearance, flavor, and texture. For example, if the fat content is reduced and the meat content is simultaneously increased to compensate for the loss of fat, redness values of products increase, firmness increases, and water-holding decreases. For this reason, a number of hydrocolloid systems with high-water-binding capacity as alginate, carrageenan, xanthan gum, cellulose derivate, starches, and pectin that are able to promote the formation of gels have been examined for their ability to replace fat (García-García and Totosaus, 2008). Beriain et al. (2011a) showed that the addition of olive oil alginate emulsion and inulin resulted in a low-salt, reduced-fat product, that is richer in MUFA, while retaining sensory notes quite similar to those of the traditional chorizo used as a control product and achieving a good acceptability rating (Fig. 1.4). However, the chorizos containing alginate were somewhat darker in color and not as hard as the rest, especially those made with 6% inulin.
Figure 1.4. Sensory Panel Ratings of Various Formulations Evaluated by a Trained Panel.
Using a 150 mm unstructured line scale: (A) taste, (B) entire sausage external aspect, (C) texture. Formulations: C, Control; O, 50% of the pork back fat was replaced with an olive oil emulsion; O–I 3%, O–I 6%; O–I 10% containing 3%, 6%, and 10% of inulin, respectively (Beriain et al., 2011a).
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Volume 1
Vassilis Kontogiorgos , in Encyclopedia of Food Chemistry, 2019
Food Applications
Galactomannans are commonly used in the food industry, particularly those from guar and locust bean gum (Table 1). Tara and fenugreek gums are not widely used due to the availability and cost although they are steadily increasing their market share.
Table 1. Outline of food applications and functionality of galactomannans (Thombare et al., 2016; Mudgil et al., 2014; Gidley and Grant Reid, 2006)
| Applications | Functionality |
|---|---|
| Dairy | Cream and milk desserts (e.g., milkshakes), yoghurts, ice creams (thickener, stabiliser), processed cheese (control syneresis and texture modification) |
| Bakery products | Icings, cake mixes, gluten-free (soften texture, improve loaf volume) |
| Gels | Fruit-based desserts (water structuring with the aid of other polysaccharides e.g., xanthan) |
| Beverages | Soft drinks (thickener, flavour oil encapsulation) |
| Seasonings | Sauces, salad dressings, mayonnaise and syrups (control of phase separation and texture, fat reduction) |
| Meat products | Sausages, frozen and tinned meats (consistency improvement, control syneresis) |
| Films | Biodegradable film formation for packaging. Inclusion of actives in the film, such as antibiotics, antioxidants, colour indicators. |
In most of the cases tara gum can be replaced by mixtures of locust bean gum and guar gum. Since the M/G ratio is in between that of guar and locust bean gum its physical properties are approximated by mixtures of guar and locust bean flours. Guar and locust bean gums are common ingredients in ice cream formulations where they modulate ice crystal formation and recrystallization, and prevent lactose crystallization, during frozen storage of the product. They also find applications in other dairy products such as cheese spreads to improve spreading or yoghurts where they are used in fat reduction to structure water and improve texture (Thombare et al., 2016). They are also used in salad dressings, sauces, soups and in a range of liquid formulations where they control viscosity, mouthfeel, and stability of the dispersions. For instance, in low fat mayonnaise they provide viscosity and prevent creaming of the emulsion. In sauces (e.g., salad dressings or stock condiments) they provide a way to control syneresis and phase separation of the solids which is particularly important considering the long shelf-life of these products. In processed meats (e.g., sausages, frankfurters etc.) they are used to bind meat pieces together, provide a uniform texture, increase yield through water management and prevent phase separation during heat treatments (Nussinovitch, 1997; Mudgil et al., 2014). Commercial galactomannans have been also shown to have surface active properties (Garti et al., 1997; Wu et al., 2009) that could be exploited in the encapsulation of flavour oils of beverages (Mikkonen et al., 2009). As mentioned earlier, the ability of locust bean gum to control rheology of aqueous media in synergism with other polysaccharides (e.g., κ-carrageenan or xanthan) allows formation of gels with diverse rheological characteristics. This makes it possible to replace gelatin for certain applications (e.g., for religious or vegetarian diets) and permits manipulation of texture and stability in a range of products (e.g., bakery formulations, fruit based desserts etc.) (Gidley and Grant Reid, 2006). Additionally, galactomannans are also used in gluten-free bakery products where they improve volume and moisture content of the crumb, among other important technological characteristics (Anton and Artfield, 2008). Apart from the self-association due to hydrogen bond formation, galactomannans may interact with each other (inter-chain interactions) and alter the rheological properties of the food matrix, as a result of sub-zero temperatures. For instance, the freezing step in ice cream manufacturing results in formation of a freeze concentrated matrix where the effective concentration of all the soluble ingredients increases significantly. As a result of the increased concentration, cryogelation of galactomannans may occur with potentially detrimental results for the sensory characteristics of the product (Doyle et al., 2006; Lozinsky et al., 2000; Patmore et al., 2003).
Galactomannans also provide a sustainable source of biopolymers for edible film applications. These materials require tuning of their gas (mainly CO2 and O2) and moisture permeability, mechanical, and optical properties. Generally, galactomannans with lower galactose content produce films with higher elongation at break and tensile strength thus presenting an opportunity to tune the film properties by varying the molecular structure of the biopolymer (Mikkonen et al., 2007). Galactomannan films are also used in conjunction with waxes, lipids, antimicrobials or antioxidants in order to modify their physical properties and extend their functionality to foods with a diverse range of physical properties (e.g., moisture or fat content) (Cerqueira et al., 2011). It should be, mentioned that in addition to the industrially relevant functional properties galactomannans may also exert bio-activity to a certain degree, as it has been reported to show immunomodulating and radical-scavenging activities (Liu et al., 2015). In addition, galactomannans that have been derivatised may have anticoagulant and antithrombotic properties or may be used as bioactives delivery-vehicles in drug and pharmaceutical formulations (Prabaharan, 2011).
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081005965215898
Source: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/frankfurter-sausage
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